The administration of Gupta empire was not as centralized as the Mauryan period. During the Gupta period, the administration became significantly decentralized, meaning there was a reduction in central power control. the main reason for this was the expansion of the feudal system. Additionally, in the Gupta administration system, various positions became hereditary, and the same person was made the authority of multiple positions simultaneously, which paved the way for the decline of this empire.
Important information about the Gupta Dynasty’s administrative system can be found in archaeological materials, various Smriti scriptures, foreign travelers’ accounts, and contemporary literary sources.
- The main archaeological sources are: Allahabad Prasasti, Damodarpur Copper Plate, Karamdanda Stone Inscription, Eran Pillar Inscription, Junagarh Inscription, Indore Copper Plate Inscription, and Udaygiri Inscription.
- The literary sources are: Shudraka’s Mrichchakatikam, Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram, and Kamandaka’s Nitisara.
The various Smriti scriptures are Katyayana Smriti, Manusmriti, Naradasmriti, and Yajnavalkya Smriti. Additionally, much information is available from the accounts of Chinese traveler Faxian or Fa-Hien.
You can also read about the Decline of Mauryan Empire: Reasons and Debates Behind It.
Divisions of Administration of Gupta Empire
Sanskrit was the official language for administrative affairs during the Gupta period, and the capital was Pataliputra. The Gupta kings appointed separate departments for each task and one officer to oversee each department for proper administration. The various divisions of administration were: Central Administration, Provincial Administration, District Administration, Mandala and Vithi Administration, City Administration, Village Administration, Judicial Administration, Military Administration, Police Administration, and Land Revenue Administration. Below is a discussion about the functions of each administration.
Central Administration
- The emperor was at the apex of the central administration, and the royal position was hereditary. The Gupta kings considered themselves equal to gods, hence they adopted titles like ‘Maharajadhiraja,’ ‘Parama-Daivata,’ ‘Parama-Bhagavata,’ ‘Parameshwara,’ and ‘Parama-Bhattaraka.’
- At the center, ministers, the crown prince, and various high-ranking royal officials assisted the emperor. Highest-ranking royal officials and ministers counseled the emperor on various issues. High officials were paid in cash, but lower officials were paid in land revenue. Other high-ranking royal officials were:
- Kumaramatya: High-ranking officer in the administration of Gupta Empire. Kumaramatyas generally maintained the connection between the central and administration. Reference to Kumaramatya was found in Vaishali Seals. The hereditary nature of this position is mentioned in the Karamdanda Stone Inscription. This inscription reveals that a person named Shikharasvamin was Kumaramatya during Chandragupta II’s time, and his son Prithivishena was Kumaramatya during Kumaragupta I’s time.
- Ayuktakas: High-ranking officer. Equivalent to ‘Yukta’ described in Ashoka’s inscriptions and Arthashastra.
- Mahabaladhikrita: Commander in Chief of the Army.
- Sandhivigrahika or Mahasandhivigrahika: Minister for peace and war. From Allahabad Prasasti and Udaygiri Inscription, it is known that Samudragupta’s court poet Harisena held the position of Sandhivigrahika, and during Chandragupta II’s time, this position was held by Virasena Shaba.
- Dandanayakas or Mahadandanayaka: judicial or military officers. Harisena also held the position of Mahadandanayaka. From Bhita seals and Vaishali seals, the names of two Mahadandanayakas are known: Vishnurakshita and Agnigupta.
- Ranabhandagaradhikarana: In charge of the military storehouse.
- Dandapashika: Highest official of the police department.
- Pratihara: The head of the emperor’s palace.
- Mahapratihara: Chief of palace maintenance.
- Khadyatapakita: Incharge of the royal kitchen.
- Akhapataladhikrita: Official in charge of writing and preserving government documents.
You can also read about Samudragupta Coins: Standard, Archer to Lyrist Type coins.
Provincial Administration
- To manage the governance structure methodically, the entire Gupta empire was split up into multiple provinces. The provinces were called ‘Deshas’ or ‘Bhuktis’. The head of the province was called Uparika. The emperor directly appointed the Uparika.
- Names of many uparikas appointed by Gupta kings are known from the Vaishali Seal, Damodarpur Copper Plate, Eran Pillar Inscription, and Junagarh Inscription. From the Damodarpur Copper Plate, it is known that Kumaragupta I appointed Chiratadatta as Uparika in Pundravardhana province. The uparika was also given the title of “Maharaja.”
- One notable province of the Gupta Empire was Saurashtra, where Skandagupta appointed Parnadatta as governor. Later, Parnadatta’s son Chakrapalita and another person named Sarvanag were appointed to assist him in administration.
- In the Gupta year 136 (455-56 CE), the Sudarshana Lake (built by Chandragupta Maurya and later improved by Ashoka) burst its embankments due to torrential rain, and Chakrapalita had the breach repaired after two years of work in the year 137 (456-57 CE).
District Administration
- In the administration of Gupta Empire, the provinces were further divided into several districts, and these districts were called ‘Vishayas’, and the head of the district was called “Vishayapat.” Vishayapati was appointed by the provincial governor, though this wasn’t always the case. ‘Pusthapala’ assisted the Vishayapati in his work.
- The Indore Copper Plate of Skandagupta provided evidence that a Vishayapati named Sharvanaga was the governor of Antaravedi (the area around Indore or Kannuaj) who was directly appointed by Emperor Skandagupta.
- From the Faridpur copper plate, it is known that the district administrator manages the district administration through a committee. The members of this committee helped him with various tasks; these members were: Nagara-Sreshthin (chief merchant/banker), Sarthavaha (chief caravan trader), Prathama Kulika (chief artisan or merchant), and Prathama-Kayastha (chief scribe or a officer in charge of revenue collection).
Mandala and Vithi administration
- The Paharpur Copper Plate Inscription of the fifth century CE mentions a Mandala named Nagirattamandala. The chief officer of the Mandala was called “Mandalika.”
- Administration units below the district level included clusters of settlements known variously as ‘Vithi,’ ‘Patta,’ ‘Bhumi,’ ‘Pathaka,’ and ‘Petha.’
- ‘Vithi’ was a lower division of ‘Vishaya.’
City Administration
- The city was called ‘Pura,’ and its head was called ‘Purapala.’ The activities of the city were overseen by ‘Nagarpalika.’
Village Administration
- The village was the lower administrative division of ‘Vithi’ in the Gupta administration. The village head, known as “Gramika” and “Gramadhyaksha,” was in charge of administering the village.
- Gramikas, Kutumbis, and Mahattaras are among the various village residents mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions. They must have owned land in the village, and their involvement in land transactions shows that they were also significant members of the rural community.
- The Damodar copper plate of the reign of Budhagupta mentions an ‘Ashtakula-Adhikarana’ headed by the Mahattara.
- Mahattara can signify a variety of things, such as head of a family or community, village headman, or village elder.
- The Sanchi Inscription of the time of Chandragupta II mentions the ‘Pancha-Mandali’ or ‘Garmajanapada,’ which may have been a corporate village body.
Judicial Administration
- The judicial system in the administration of Gupta Empire did not have as strict rules as the Mauryan period. From Fa-Hien or Faxien’s account and Skandagupta’s Junagarh Inscription, it is known that the punishment system was very simple, and the death penalty was not given. Monetary fines were imposed as punishment, and only traitors were subjected to mutilation. However, it should be noted that this statement is not entirely accurate, as we find references to cruel punishments in Kalidasa’s works and Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa.
- Dandanayaka and Mahadandanayaka were judges. The Allahabad inscription mentions three Mahadandanayakas named Dhruvabhuti, Harisena, and Tilakbhatta.
Military Administration
- The Gupta kings had a vast and well-regulated army that included four types of forces: infantry, cavalry, elephant force, and navy. Mahabaladhikrita was the highest-ranking official of the army. Mahasvapati (according to the Bhita seal) and Bhatashvapati (according to the Vaishali seal) were commanders of cavalry. Mahapilupati or Katuka were commanders of the elephant force.
Land Revenue Administration
In the administration of Gupta empire, there were mainly two types of land: the lands that were cultivated every year were called “Kshetra.” And the lands that were not suitable for cultivation were called “Khila and Aprahata.” There were also some other types of land; these were: land granted to temples and Brahmins for religious work was called Agrahara, tax-free land granted by the king for the maintenance of Brahmins was called Brahmadeyas or Shasanas, and Aprada was land that had not yet been settled.
Amarakosha mentions 12 types of land; these are: Urvana (fertile), Ushara (barren), Maru (desert), Aprahata (fallow), Shadvala (grassy), Pankila (muddy), Jalaprayamanupam (wet), Kachcha (adjacent to water), Sharkara (full of pebbles and pieces of limestone), Sharkavati (sandy), Nadimatrika (watered by a river), and Devamatrika (watered by rain).
There were multiple separate units for land measurement, these were: Angula (probably ¾ inch smallest measure); Hasta (cubit), which was the standardized distance between the tip of the elbow and the middle finger (18 inches); Dhanu or Danda and Nala (larger units of measures); Adhavapa (3/8-1/2 acres); Dronavapa (from one and a half acres to two acres); Kulyavapa (12-16 acres); Pataka (60-80 acres); Pravartavapa (smaller than a Kulyavapa); Padavarta (over 1 ft); and Bhumi.
The main source of revenue in the Gupta period was land tax, and ‘Chungi’ or import tax was the second major source of income. The taxes collected as land tax and other taxes were:
- Hiranya: King’s share of the agricultural produce in cash.
- Bhoga: Various items, like fruits, flowers, etc., that villagers would provide to the king at different times were called bhoga.
- Udranga: Police tax.
- Uparikara: Tax imposed on farmers without any proprietary right in the soil.
- Bhaga: 1/6th of the produced crops had to be given to the king.
The officials related to land administration were:
- Shaulkika: Customs officer.
- Hiranika and Audrangika: Tax collectors.
- Dhruvadhikarana: Collected land tax.
- Karanika: Was the custodian of land-related inscriptions.
- Neyadhikarana: resolved land-related disputes.
- Kutumbis: village landholders and independent farmers.
- Krishibala, karshaka, or kinas: ordinary cultivators; they were usually sharecroppers.
- Dibir: scribe.
- Vishti: unpaid labour.
