The Administration of Mauryan Empire or government was primarily centralized. The state structure was monarchical, and the royal position was hereditary. The foundation of the administrative system in India was undoubtedly laid in the Vedic period. It is not clearly known what kind of policies the rulers followed in their governance during that time.
However, there were mainly three important sources for understanding how the Administration of Mauryan Empire was conducted. These were Kautilya’s Arthashastra (4th century BC), Megasthenes’ Indica (300 BC), and Ashoka’s edicts. In addition, the Girngar inscription, Rudradaman’s Junagarh prashasti, Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta (5th century AD), the Buddhist text Divyavadana, and the Jain text Parishishtaparvan were also important.
The rulers of the Mauryan Empire reigned from 324 BC to 187 BC (or 185 BC according to some). During their reign, there was considerable clarity in the administrative system. There were separate departments for each task in the central, provincial, and local administrations, and each department had many employees.
The main reason behind the Mauryan Empire’s expansion in the Indian subcontinent was the powerful military force controlled by the center and the achievements of the rulers. The administrative structure was so centralized that there was a lot of improvement in the condition of subjects, including women.
Central Administration of Mauryan Empire
Among the three notable sources, Kautilya’s Arthashastra provided a lot of important information about the Mauryan administrative system. The Arthashastra is the first Indian text to define a state. The “Saptanga Rajya” of the state, namely svami (the lord or king), amatya (ministers), janapada (the territory and the people), durga (the fortified capital), kosha (the treasury), danda (justice or force), and mitra (ally), brought completeness to the Mauryan system of governance. We find the description of this “Saptanga rajya” in Kautilya’s Arthashastra itself.
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Power and Dignity of the King
The Mauryan state was a monarchy, with a strong king at the head of state. There is no question that the king is the center of power in the empire because to Ashoka’s inscriptions. The Arthashastra stresses the moral responsibilities of monarchy by outlining the king’s duties and obligations, even though it is primarily a manual on how to gain, hold, and expand political power.
Ministers
After the king, the position was held by ‘Amatya’ or ‘Ministers’. This information is found in the Arthashastra. The main responsibility of the minister was to assist the king in governance. Because it was not possible for the king to run a vast empire alone. However, in Megasthenes’ description, the word ‘minister’ is not used; instead, the words ‘Councillors and assessors’ were used.
Mantrin and Council of Ministers
Among the ministers mentioned in the Arthashastra, the most important were the “Mantrin,” or “high-level ministers.” Only skilled and experienced individuals from among the ministers could become members of this position. From here, it is also known that the Mantrin advised the king in internal and foreign affairs. The council of ministers consisted of 12 Amatyas. The Arthashastra also reveals that ministers received a salary of 1000 pana per month.
Apart from the ministers, there were royal officials like Tirthas, Adhyakshya, Prativedaka, Kulik, etc. Tirthas were the highest category of officials in the administration, i.e., head of the department. There was a total of 18 Tirthas. And Adhyakshyas were high officials in charge of important portfolios. There were 20 Adhyakshyas.
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Some other important departments and their heads were:
Adhyakshas
Departmental heads played an important role in the Administration of Mauryan Empire. The Arthashastra contains an extensive list of departmental heads. There were mainly 20 of them. However, 32 Adhyakshas were mentioned in the Arthashastra. Among them, notable ones were:
| Adhyakshas | Department |
| Akaradhyaksha | In charge of mines & minerals |
| Akshapataladhyaksha | In charge of accounts/in the capital was the records cum audit office. |
| Kupyadhyaksha | In charge of forest produce |
| Lakshanadhyaksha | In charge of mint |
| Panyadhyaksha | In charge of trade & commerce |
| Pautava/tulamanadhyaksha | In charge of weights & measures |
| Sitadhyaksha | In charge of crown lands |
| Sulkadhyaksha | In charge of customs & tolls |
| Suradhyaksha | Regulator of Liquor Outlets |
| Sutradhyaksha | In charge of handlooms |
| Lohadhyaksha | Workers in charge of refining iron ore |
| Rupadarshaka | Supervisor of the quality of coin |
| Samasthadhyaksha | Superintendent of markets |
| Pattanadhyaksha | In charge of ports |
| Lavanadhyaksha | Salt superintendent |
| Madradhyaksha | In charge of passport |
| Suvarnadhyaksha | Superintendent of gold |
| Kosthagaradhyaksha | In charge of warehouse |
| Karmantika | Chief of industries |
| Upavasa | Tenant |
| Vivitadhyaksha | In charge of pasture lands |
| Dauvarika | In charge of palace/ chamberlain |
Mahamattas
Mahamattas were known as the highest officials. They also had different types, which were:
- Antamahamattas: in charge of the frontier areas.
- Itthijhakkamahamattas: in charge of women’s welfare.
- Nagalaviyohalakamahamattas: officers in charge of the city’s judicial department.
- Dharmamahamattas: a position specially created for implementing Ashoka’s Dhamma policy.
- Vyavaharika: judicial officers.
Ambassadors
There was a class of royal officials under the central government known as ambassadors. They had to bear the responsibility of maintaining communication between the kingdom and foreign states.
Ambassadors had three classes: ‘Nishristartha’, ‘Porimitartho’, and ‘Sasonhoro’. Nishristartha had full authority. Porimitartho had limited power. Sasonohoro ambassadors worked according to royal instructions; they did not have the right to work independently.
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Provincial Administration of Mauryan Empire
For administrative convenience, the Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces from the time of Chandragupta Maurya.
Uttarapatha: This province consisted of Kashmir, North West Frontier Province, Punjab, and Afghanistan. The capital of this province was Taxila.
Dakshinapath: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka were included in this province. The capital of this province was Suvarnagiri.
Avant: This province was formed with Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the western part of Madhya Pradesh. The capital of this province was Ujjayini.
Prachya: This province consisted of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Bangladesh. The capital of this province was Pataliputra. During Emperor Ashoka’s time, a new province was formed. It was Kalinga, and its capital was Tosali.
The provinces were known as ‘Desh’. Prince was usually appointed to the position of provincial governors. They were called ‘Kumara’ or ‘Pradeshpala’. There was a council similar to the center to assist the provincial governor in provincial administration. They were assisted by a class of high-ranking officials called “Mahamatta.”.
Analysis of two separate rock edicts of Ashoka inscribed in ‘Dhauli’ and ‘Jaugada’ shows that royal prince from the Mauryan family were directly appointed by the Mauryan emperor as provincial governors in three provincial administrative centers: Tosali, Ujjayini, and Taxila.
Clear evidence that individuals outside the Mauryan dynasty also worked as provincial administrators was found in Kathiawar. The “Girnar inscription” of Rudradaman mentions Pushyagupta, who was the rashtrita (governor) of Saurashtra in Chandragupta’s time. In Ashoka’s time, the administrator in charge of that area was Tusashpha.
District Administration of Mauryan Empire
Just as the empire was divided into several provinces, each province was divided into several districts. The chief administrator of the district was ‘Rajuka’. Some description of how the district administration was conducted is recorded in Megasthenes’ book ‘Indica‘. From a part of his Indica, it is known that the high-ranking officials in charge of the district were called ‘Agronomoi’.
They were mainly responsible for rural areas. Apart from revenue collection and judicial work, the Rajukas performed tasks such as land measurement, toll collection, district road development, implementation of irrigation projects, promotion of industry and commerce, etc. There was considerable similarity between the work and responsibilities of the Agronomoi and those of the Rajukas.
The Ashokan inscriptions indicate that the district level officers ‘Yukta’ (subordinate revenue officer, district level), ‘Rajuka’ (rural administration & justice, land measurement, and boundaring), and ‘Pradesika’ (district head, peace and order maintainer, and revenue collector) were significant. According to Ashoka Rock edicts 3, these officers conduct five-year journeys to impart dhamma knowledge and for other objectives.
The rajuka seem to have been high-ranking officials involved in public welfare initiatives during Ashoka’s reign. Ashoka expanded their responsibilities to include judicial and dhamma promotion.
The Arthashastra uses the term “yukta” to refer to officers in general, but it does not include the word “rajuka.”
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Local Administration of Mauryan Empire
Local administration was primarily village-centered. The village was the lowest level of the Mauryan administrative system. The head of the village was called ‘Gramika’ or ‘Grammukhya’. The elderly persons of the village (grama-vriddhas) assisted him in conducting affairs.
According to the Arthashastra, above the Gramikas were the ‘Gopa’. Each ‘Gopa’ was responsible for 5 or 10 villages. The Gopas were responsible for all revenue-related duties of the village. In other words, Gopa was the high-ranking revenue officer of the village.
Different administrative officers are paid in cash by the Arthashastra. The “Sthanika,” who oversaw one-fourth of the Janapada, was the village’s administrative superior to the “Gopa.” An officer in charge of overseeing sizable groups akin to districts was known as a “Sthanika”.
Above the ‘Sthanika’ were the ‘Pradeshtris’. Kautilya mentioned that the Pradeshtri would be present at the main workplace of ‘Gopa’ and ‘Sthanika’ and oversee their work. Additionally, one of the main tasks of the ‘Pradeshtris’ was to maintain local law and order.
The structure of local administration was presented differently in the Arthashastra. A Janapada (township) consisting of 800 villages was known as ‘Sthaniyo’. A Janapada consisting of 400 villages was described in the Arthashastra as ‘Dronamukha’. A Janapada consisting of 200 villages was called ‘Karvatika’. A Janapada formed by the combination of 10 villages was known as ‘Samgrahana’.
Some important positions in the local administrative system of the village were Durgapala: governors of forts; Antapala: chief of frontiers defense; and Dandapala: police chief.
Ashoka’s inscriptions refer to the pativedakas and pulisani, who were responsible for keeping the king informed of public opinion.
Revenue department
Land revenue was the main source of government income. This revenue system was divided into two parts: one was ‘Bali’ (additional tax), and the other was ‘Bhaga’ (land revenue and main source of treasury, which amounted to 1/4 or 1/6 of the produced crops). In the Mauryan land revenue system, ‘Udaybhagokal’- irrigation tax was taken for agricultural work.
The Rummindei pillar inscription of Ashoka mentions that the Lumbini peasants received an exemption from “Bali,” which could have been a land-area tax, and that the “Bhaga” was reduced to 1/8th (from 1/6th).
The term “kautilya” describes many types of sharecroppers who work on land owned by the state. For example, the Ardhasitikas kept half of the harvest, while the Svaviryopajivins kept between 1/4 and 1/5 of the produce.
The two main officials of the department were ‘Samaharta’ and ‘Sannidhata’. Samaharta was appointed from among the ministers who had conquered the temptation of money at that time. Samaharta was the head of the revenue department. Samaharta kept a keen eye on ensuring that sufficient revenue was collected from various sources, such as the king’s private land, agricultural land, irrigation projects, commodities, cottage industries, etc. At the same time, he also kept an eye on maintaining a balance between government income and expenditure.
‘Sannidhata’ was the official in charge of the royal treasury. These two classes of ministers together were called “Arthapodhasudhha”.
Military department
Megasthenes’ account reveals the existence of a vast army during the Mauryan period. The chief of this army was the commander-in-chief. The commander-in-chief was appointed by the King himself. Megasthenes said that a council consisting of 30 members was entrusted with the responsibility of the military department.
This council was divided into 6 committees with 5 members each. These committees were:
- Infantry (patyadhyaksha).
- Cavalry (ashvadhyaksha).
- Elephant Corps (hastyadhyaksha).
- Chariot Corps (rathadhyaksha).
- Navy (navadhyaksha).
- Responsible for communication and supply system.
Recruitment to the army was done from among people of all castes in society. The amount of salary was also sufficient for a comfortable life, and the army was paid cash.
Spies
The job of spies was to inform the king about what was happening in the kingdom, even about the movements of the army. The Arthashastra mentioned two types of spies. Namely: Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wanderer). Gudhapurushas were the detectives or secret agents.
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Judicial system
In the judicial department, the king was supreme. He conducted judicial work with the help of learned scholars and experienced ministers. The Arthashastra mentioned two types of courts. ‘Dharmasthiya’ was the civil court, ‘Kantakashodhana’ was the criminal court. There was a separate court for foreigners. Both Kautilya and Megasthenes mentioned severe punishments.
Municipal Administration or City Administration of Mauryan Empire
Cities existed during the Mauryan period. An example of the city of Pataliputra was found from Megasthenes’ account. A detailed description of municipal or city administration was found from Megasthenes’ account. However, some assumptions about municipal administration could also be made from the Arthashastra and Ashoka’s inscriptions.
A council of 30 members was entrusted with the administration of the city of Pataliputra. This committee was divided into 6 branches, and each branch had 5 members. The branches were:
- Industrial art.
- The entertainment and surveillance of foreigners.
- Maintaining records of births and deaths.
- Trade and commerce.
- Supervising the public sale of goods.
- The collection of taxes on merchandise sold in the market.
Conclusion
A tendency towards centralization was seen in the administrative system of the Mauryan Empire. Although the king was all-powerful in all areas, he could never actually become autocratic. The administrative process was welfare-oriented.
Along with the proper application of this policy of punishment for crimes, the unique endeavor to establish peace and order in the kingdom by awakening a sense of humanity and friendship among people was, in a word, wonderful. The main reason behind the success of the administrative system in the Mauryan era was the wisdom of the rulers. Due to the lack of such kings after Ashoka, the administration was misguided and the foundation of the empire crumbled.
