Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty: A Powerful Indian Dynasty

Several Gurjara Pratihara Dynasties emerged in various places in Western and Central India. Among them, the oldest dynasty was the Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty of the Jodhpur region in Rajasthan. The founder of this dynasty was Harichandra. And its capital was Mandavyapur/Mandore.

At the end of the 6th century CE, another dynasty emerged in the Broach region of Gujarat. The first king of this dynasty was Dadda I. The capital was Nandipuri.

The Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty that occupied an important place in Indian politics emerged in the early 8th century CE in Jalore, Rajasthan, and the Ujjain region of Madhya Pradesh.

The Gurjara kings of Mandavyapur, Jalore, and Ujjain called themselves ‘Pratihara’. The word “Pratihara” means “doorman.”

During the Late Classical period of the Indian subcontinent, Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty ruled over a large portion of northern India, maintaining power from the 8th to the mid-11th century. They rule first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.

Conflicts with other modern powers like the Palas and the Rashtrakutas were a constant part of the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty’s growth.

Brief information of Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

Time Period: Mid 8th century AD to 11th century AD.

Capital: First Ujjain (Nagabhata I) and Later Kannuaj (Bhoja I/Mihirabhoja).

Common Language: Sanskrit, Prakit.

Founder of Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty: From the Jodhpur Inscription of Pratihara King Bauka, it is known that the founder of this dynasty was a Brahmin named ‘Harichandra’. But based on information from most sources, historians consider Nagabhata I to be the true founder of this dynasty.

Important event: “Tripartite Struggle” (785-816 CE). Information about the Tripartite Struggle between the Pala-Pratihara-Rashtrakuta is known from the book “Muruj-Ul-Zehab,” written by Al-Masudi.

Two main centers of education and culture: Bhinmal and Chittor (Rajasthan).

Source: To obtain relevant information about the names of the rulers of the Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty, their achievements, social and economic life, and political history, we have to rely on several inscriptions or copper plates. These are Pratihara King Bauka’s Jodhpur and Ghatiyala Prakit Inscription 861 AD, Mihirabhoja’s Gwalior Prashasti, Varaha copper plate (836 CE), Daulatpur copper plate, Rashtrakuta King Dantidurga’s Ellora Dashavatara temple Inscription, and Amoghavarsa’s Sanjan Inscriptions of 871 CE.

Among the literary materials are the descriptive book “Si-Yu-Ki” by Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang and the account of Arabic writer Alberuni.

From the achievements of the rulers to the administrative system, economic infrastructure, and growth of trade and commerce, this dynasty’s progress and prestige had reached its peak. The Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty had left extraordinary, excellent examples in the fields of literature, architecture, and sculpture in the pages of history. Below, we discuss from the political expansion of power by the rulers to the examples in the field of architecture and sculpture.

List of important rulers of Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty and their contributions

Rulers name	Time period
Nagabhata I	730-760 CE
Kakkuka/Kakustha and Devaraja	760-780CE
Vatsraja	780-800CE
Nagabhata 2/II	800-833CE
Ramabhadra	833-836CE
Bhoja I/Mihira Bhoja	836-885CE
Mahendrapala I	885-910CE
Bhoja II	91-913CE
Mahipala I	913-944CE
Mahendrapala II	944-948CE
Devapala	948-954CE
Vinayakapala	954-955CE
Mahipala II	955-956CE
Vijayapala II	956-960CE
Rajyapala/Rajapala	960-1018CE
Tilochanapala	1018-1024CE
Yashpala	1024-1036CE

Nagabhata I

Nagabhata I was the true founder of the Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty. His other name was “Nagabloka.” In the Gwalior Inscription, it is recorded that Gurjara Pratihara emperor Nagabhata “crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha King”.
He established control in several places in Western and Central India by expelling the Arabs. He extended his control in the East and South from Mandor, conquering Malwas as far as Gwaliour and the port of Bhrauch in Gujarat. He established his capital at Ujjain or Avanti in Malwa.
The most notable event of his reign was the conflict between the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga and Nagabhata. Ujjain or Avanti was part of his kingdom. But Dantidurga had a covetous eye on this region for commercial advantages. This area was essentially the confluence of most of the north and south-facing trade routes.
Famous cities like Baranasi, Kausambi, Taxila, Bhrigukaccha, and Ayodhya were connected to Ujjain’s road network. The city was also a major center of the textile industry. But in this conflict, Nagabhata I was defeated. However, Dantidurga couldn’t stay in Ujjain for long. Because the Chalukyas had become eager to attack the Rashtrakuta kingdom, so he returned.
The establishment of an independent Pratihara kingdom stretching from Bhrigukaccha to Avanti under the leadership of Nagabhata I in the first part of the eighth century was an important event in the history of India. It is believed that he expanded from Bhrigukaccha in the west to Ujjain and its surrounding areas in the east.

Vatsraja

Vatsraja was ambitious for the empire. So as soon as he ascended the throne, he focused on conquering kingdoms. From the Gwalior Inscription, it is known that he had uprooted a royal dynasty named Bhandi. He had assumed the title of “Ranahastina.”
Then he had taken the resolve to establish Pratihar dominance in the eastern direction, that is, in the Gangetic region. In other words, this was the first participation of this dynasty in the politics of North India, and from his time, the “Tripartite Struggle” centered on Kannauj had begun. From Al-Masudi’s book “Muruj-Ul-Zehab,” we learn about the “Tripartite Struggle” between the Pala-Pratihara-Rashtrakuta.
The Pala king Dharmapala had his eye on the agriculturally and commercially rich Gangetic valley. Conflict between Vatsraja and Dharmapala over establishing dominance in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region, including Kanyakubja or Kannauj, had become inevitable.
From a stone inscription of Vatsraja dated 795 CE, it is known that he had reinstated Indrayudha on the throne of Kannauj. This means that he had been dethroned earlier. From an Inscription of the Pala Dynasty, it is known that at that time Dharmapala had removed Indrayudha and placed Chakrayudha on the throne. This means that Vatsaraja had defeated both Dharmapala and Chakrayudha.
Even from the Radhanpur and Wani Inscription of Rashtrakuta Dynasty King Govinda III, evidence was found that at that time Vatsraja had defeated both Dharmapala and Chakrayudha.
He was eventually defeated by the Rashtrakut King Dhruva and passed away in 976 BCE.

Nagabhata II

Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty became the Most Powerful Dynasty in Northern India. During his time, the Rashtrakuta King was Govinda III, and the Pala King was Dharmapala.
Although he miserably defeated Dharmapala in the battle of Munger in Bihar, he was immediately defeated by Govinda III. However, he was able to maintain his control over Kannauj until the last days of his reign. The Gurjara Pratihara state’s capital has become Kannauj, which at the height of their power covered much of northern India.

Bhoja/Mihirabhoja

Mihira Bhoja, also known as Bhoja or Bhoja I. King Bhoja, during his reign, the Arab Chronicler Sulaiman came in 851 AD. The Arab Chronicler Sulaiman describes the army of the pratiharas as it stood in 851 CE:

“The ruler of gurjaras maintains numerous forces, and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is……….and his camels and horses are numerous.”

The silver coin that Mihirabhoja introduced was called “Dramma.”
The Arab traveler Al-Masudi referred to him as “King Barua.”
He assumed the title of ‘Adivarah’ meaning ‘incarnation of Vishnu’.
Mahodaya, also known as Kannauj, was considered the capital of his empire.
He shifted the capital from Ujjain to Kannauj.

Mahendrapala

During Mahendrapala’s reign, the empire extended from the Himalayas in the north to the pre-Narmada region in the south, and from the borders of the Indus in the west to Bengal in the east.
He assumed the titles of ‘Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta’ (Great King of Kings of India), “Parambhattaraka,” “Maharajadhiraja,” and “Parameshwar.”
The famous Sanskrit scholar Rajasehkhar was his court poet. Rajasehkhara wrote a famous play in Prakrit language, which is “Karpuramanjari.”

Mahipala

From his reign, the path of decline of the Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty had been paved.
The Rashtrakuta king Indra III crossed the Yamuna River and arrived with his army in the Pratihara capital Kannauj. Without making any attempt to defend the capital, Mahipala had fled. Kannauj was set on fire by Indra III in 916 AD.
But it was not possible for Indra II to stay in North India for long. So, he left some soldiers in Kannauj and returned to his country with the rest of the army. Then Mahipala, with the help of his ally Harsha, the ruler of the Chandela Dynasty, had recaptured the capital by expelling the Rashtrakuta army.
The famous scholar Al-Masudi from Baghdad came to Gujarat during his time in 915 AD.
During Mahipala’s time, Rajashekhara wrote the play “Panchapandabam.”
Kshemeshwar, the author of “Chandakaushikam,” had adorned his court.

Rajyapala and Yashpala

In some sources, Rajyapala, and in other sources, Yashpala is claimed to be the last ruler of this dynasty.
The last king of the empire, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018.
In order to honor the victory over the Rashtrakutas, Rajasekhar’s drama Vidyashalavanjika was performed at the court of Yuvaraji.

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Administration of Gurjara Pratihara

Region > Province (bhukti) > Mandals > Vishaya > Grama

Region under direct control of the king

The Pratihara kingdom was monarchical. At the head of the administration was the king. The kings mainly used titles like “Parambhattaraka,” “Parameshwara,” and “Maharajadhiraja.” To assist the king in administrative work, there were officials with titles such as Mantri, Mahamantri, Sandhivigrahika, Akshapatalika, Bhandarika, Tantrapala, Kottapala, Dandapashika, Dandanayka, Bhangika, Baladhikrat, etc.

Mantri assisted as the king’s political advisor.
Mahamantri served as the chief political advisor.
Sandhivigrahika held the position of foreign minister and war department.
Akshapatalika was the head of the royal archives.
Bhandarika was the officer in charge of the Treasury.
Tantrapala supervised the work of regional administrators as the king’s representative.
Kottapala was the highest officer at the fort.
Dandapashika was the highest police officer.
Dandanayka Looked after Justice and Military Department.
Baladhikrat was the Chief of Army.
Bhangika wrote orders for charities.
Vynaharina was the legal expert.

Bhuktis/Provinces

For administrative convenience, the king divided the regions into several Bhuktis or provinces. We find mention of three Bhuktis named Shravasti, Pratishthana, and Kanyakubja. In the Gupta era, the governor of a Bhukti was called ‘Uparika’. It is not known what the governor of a Bhukti in the Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty was called. However, it is known that the king himself appointed him, and he maintained law and order, collected revenue, etc., in the Bhukti with the help of his appointed officials.

Mandals

Mandals were made up of several districts. We find mention of three Mandals named Shravasti, Kausambi, and Kalanjoor.

Vishaya

The lower administrative division of Mandals was called ‘Vishaya’. Mentions of Vishayas like Balayika, Udumbara, Varanasi, and Asuradak have been found.

Grama

‘Gramapati’ was the head of the administrative responsibility of the village. He was also called ‘Gramika’.

Panchakula

A group handled the administrative functions of the city. This group was sometimes called ‘Panchakula’, and sometimes ‘Uttarasabha’. Panchakula means a group of 5 members.

Economic life of Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

The economic foundation of the Gurjara pratihara dynasty was based on trade and commerce, agriculture, and the emergence of various small urbanizations. However, conditions for agriculture were not favorable throughout the kingdom. The western part of Rajasthan was completely barren. So, during this period, there were two effective measures for agricultural development. Firstly, many uncultivated lands were made arable. Secondly, numerous artificial water bodies were created for agricultural work, such as Dhaimada, Dhaivada, Vapi, and Tadaga (these mean wells). Vapi and Tadaga meant ponds.
An irrigation device called “Araghatta” was mentioned. It was also called “Ghatiyantra.” This wheel-shaped device had several pot-like containers attached to its surface. The device was placed in water. When the device was operated, the containers would fill up, and that water would fall onto the field below for cultivation.
Various merchant classes like Shresthis, Suvarnavavaniks, and Sarthavahas were mentioned in the Pratiharas’ Inscriptions. During this time, several new cities emerged. Some places were prosperous due to political or administrative reasons, while others were prosperous due to trade. Some such cities were Nandipuri, Mandavyapur, Medantka, and Siadoni.
Several currencies like Dramma, Panchiyakdramma, Panchiyakdrammapada, Bingshopaka, Rupaka, Karsapana, Pan, and Dinar were mentioned in contemporary literature and inscriptions.
Drama meant silver currency. Usually, one Drama weighed 66 grains.
Panchiyakdramma was a subdivision of Drama, and Panchiyakdrammapada was a subdivision of Panchiyakdramma.
Bingshopaka was a type of copper currency.
Rupaka generally meant currency.
Karsapana was also a type of silver currency, and Pan was a type of copper currency.
The Roman silver currency was called ‘Dinar’ or ‘Denarius’.

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In social life, the caste system, polygamy, the emergence of the Rajput caste, the emergence of the Jauhar/Jowhar/Juhar custom, the purdah system, and the lowest position of women in society were notable.

During this period, there was a slight improvement in the condition of the Shudras. They participated extensively in agriculture, animal husbandry, and crafts. In Uddyotana Suri’s “Kuvalayamala” poem, we find mention of a Shudra named Sarthavaha. Moreover, Medhatithi also mentioned the property rights of Shudras.

During this time, there was a continuous influx of Muslims in North and West India. As a result, there is evidence of mass conversion of Hindus.

The birth of a daughter was considered sorrowful for parents. The reason was that the daughter had to marry a suitable groom, which was difficult. However, there were some learned women too. Avantisundari, wife of Rajasekhara, was a learned woman of that era.

The ‘jauhar’ custom was prevalent in society. In society, the ‘jauhar’ tradition was commonplace. Jauhar was a Hindu Rajput practice of mass self-immolation by women, both adults and children, in the Indian subcontinent in order to avoid capture, slavery, and rape by Islamic invaders in the face of certain defeat during a war. Historically, this practice has been seen throughout India’s northwest, with the most well-known jauhar in history taking place in Rajasthan during the conflicts between the Muslim army and the Hindu Rajput kings. This was a practice only used only during war, usually when victory was improbable This was a practice only used only during war, usually when victory was improbable.

Language and Literature of Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

Some literary figures, scholars, and poets of this period were widely renowned. As mathematicians, Brahmagupta and Magha (Bhinmal town), Haribhadra Suri, Uddyotana Suri, Jinbhatta, Alacharyya, Jinvallav, Rajasekhara, and Kshemeshwar were particularly noteworthy. Their literary works enriched Sanskrit, Prakit, and Apabhramsa literature. The contribution of Pratihara rulers to the progress of literature was immense.

Brahmagupta

The earliest mathematician was Brahmagupta. He wrote “Brahmaputra-Siddhanta” on mathematics and astronomy around 628 CE. He also wrote “Khandakhadyaka” in Sanskrit around 665 CE. Brahmagupta’s workplace was the city of Bhinmal.

Magha

He appeared in the late seventh or early eighth century. His workplace was also the city of Bhinmal. His famous poem is “Sisupalavadha.” Dhayilla was a descendant of the poet Magha. He composed a poem in the Apabhramsa language. The name of the poem is “Paumasirichriu.”

Rajasekhara

Rajasekhara was born in Maharashtra. His workplace was Kannauj, the capital of the Pratihara kingdom. Mahendrapala I and his son Mahipala I were Rajasekhara’s patrons. His four plays are “Balaramayana,” “Balabharata,” “Karpuramanjari,” and “Viddhasalabhanjika.”

He wrote “Balaramayana” based on the Ramayana. The play revolved around the love between Princess Mrigankabali and King Vidyadharamalla.

“Karpuramanjari” was written in Prakit language, and he wrote this play at the request of his wife Avantisundari. The play is about the love and eventual marriage of Karpuramanjari with a king. This poem also mentions women skilled in dance, singing, and instrumental music.

“Viddhasalabhanjika,” “Karpuramanjari,” and “Kavyamimamsa” mention female painters and female poets. He wrote a book called “Kavyamimamsa” in Sanskrit between 880 and 920 CE.

Haribhadra Suri

Haribhadra Suri was a bright star of Prakrit literature in the eighth century CE. He spent most of his time in Chittorgarh and Bhinmal. Among his written books, notable ones are “Samaraichchakaha” and “Dhurtakhyan.” Samaraichchakaha is primarily a prose poem, but it also contains poetry in between. Dhurtakhyan is a satiric poem. This poem attacked Brahminism.

Uddyotana Suri

Uddyotana Suri was a disciple of Haribhadra Suri. He wrote a Prakrit poem called “Kuvalayamala” in the city of Jalore in 778 CE. This poem was translated into Sanskrit by Ratnaprabhasuri.

Kshemeshwar

Kshemeshwar was a contemporary of Rajasekhara. His play is “Chandakaushikam.” Vishwamitra was the son of Sage Kushika. So, another name of Vishwamitra was ‘Kaushika’. He named the play after Vishwamitra.

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Religion of Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

Religious tolerance, liberality, a clear view towards religion, and giving equal respect to all religions were the bright examples of the religious life of the Pratihara era rulers. There was no religious narrowness, as evidenced by the fact that most rulers’ fathers and sons had different deities of worship. During this time, there was a synthesis of Vaishnava religion, Shaiva religion, worship of Mother Goddess, Buddhism, Jainism, and worship of the sun deity, Kartikeya, Ganesha, etc.
Mihirabhoja was a worshipper of Vishnu.
Vatsaraja, Mahendrapala II, and Trilochonpala were followers of Shaivism.
Nagabhata II, Mihirabhoja, and Mahendrapala I were worshippers of Goddess Durga, or Bhagavati.
Both Ramavadra and Binayakpala were devotees of the Sun. The two main centers of Sun worship were Bhinmal and Ajmer. Balabarma, a follower of Mahendrapal I, and Indraraja, a follower of Mahendrapala II, each built a Sun temple.
A Buddhist monastery had grown up in Bhinmal, and Buddhism was also very popular. Some Jain scholars of this period were Bappabhattisuri, Haribhadra Suri, and Uddyotana Suri.

Art and Architecture of Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

Among the architectural styles of this period, notable ones are some very ancient temples of the Pratihara era near Nareshwar village in Gwalior city, Bateshwar Hindu Temple in Morena district, MP, and Mahadeva Temple, Amrol Village, Gwalior District, MP, Teli Ka Mandir in Gwalior, MP, the ninth-century small-scale Sun temple of Mokhra in Tikamgarh district, an ancient temple in Tehri village near Mathura, some Jain temples in the deogarh of Jhansi district, and the early Jain Mahavira temples of Osian during the reign of Nagabhatta II are among the most important.
The characteristics of the Bateshwar Hindu Temple in Morena district and Mahadeva Temple, Amrol Village, Gwalior MP were that the sanctum was square. There was a narrow antarala in front of the sanctum. The entrance to the sanctum is carved with floral patterns, half-pillars, and images of serpents and Garuda.
The sanctum of the Teli Ka temple in Gwalior is rectangular. There are images of two doorkeepers right in front of the entrance. The temple was mainly built for the goddess. In Odisha, this type of temple was called ‘Khakhara Deula’. It is assumed that the temple was built in the middle of the ninth century CE during the reign of Pratihara king Mihirabhoja.

The sanctum of the temple in Tehri village is pancharatha. There is a mandapa in front of the sanctuary. The decoration of geometric patterns on the temple walls is notable. The influence of the Gupta style is noticeable in the sculpture of the Pratihara era.

Conclusion

The Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty, which was as expanded and dominant in the first period, had declined towards the end of its reign. Weak leadership, constant conflict with the Rashtrakuta kings of South India, internal strife within the royal family, and the attack of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni ensured the fall of the empire. However, the achievements and glory of this dynasty can never be denied.