Land Revenue System of Akbar : Zabti System, Kankut System

Agriculture was the backbone of India’s economy. The main source of the Mughal Empire’s economy was agriculture and the Land Revenue System. How and how much land revenue was collected from farmers was an important aspect of the Mughal land revenue system.

The foundation of the land revenue system during the Mughal period had been laid much earlier. No new methods of land revenue collection were observed during the reigns of Babur and Humayun. Babur and Humayun continued the same revenue system that was prevalent during the Delhi Sultanate period. Like the Sultanate period, they too collected revenue based solely on the productivity of the land without conducting any land surveys. During this time, if crops failed for any reason, the revenue would be waived.

According to the arrangement of Todar Mal, Sher Shah’s revenue minister, three types of land revenue systems were prevalent: Zabti, Ghalla-Bakhshi, and Nasaq system. However, during the Mughal era, from the time of Akbar, the land revenue system that was adopted through many changes and gained the most prominence was the zabti system.

Also Read about: Iqta System in Delhi Sultanate

Land revenue system of Akbar

• During Akbar’s time, many methods were introduced to determine revenue in order to make it easier for farmers to pay. These were the Nasaq, Kankut, Ghalla-bakhshi, Dahsala, and Zabti System.
• It is known that before the implementation of Todar Mal’s arrangement, a revenue system known as “hast” and “budh” or “hastobadh” was also prevalent. In this method, royal officials would observe the actual amount of crops produced by inspecting the village, and based on that, revenue would be collected through an estimated calculation of what the actual crop might be.
• After assuming full charge of the administration in 1562, Akbar tried to reform the system. Asaf Khan, an Iranian, was appointed in the position of wazir for administrative reform. But nothing was gained, and he was removed from that position. However, Aitmad Khan, a trusted eunuch who had been appointed as diwan of the crown land (khalisa), affected reforms, which relieved Akbar of his immediate financial worries.
• After Aitmad Khan was appointed, he first separated Khalisa and Jagir lands. He included most of the fertile lands under Khalisa. But this plan ultimately failed to collect revenue properly.
• In 1566, Akbar himself decided to introduce the Ray system introduced by Sher Shah, also known as single-price crops list throughout India. Which is called “Dastur-ul-alam or Dastur.”. But farmers faced a lot of loss and exploitation through this system.
• In 1567, he finally appointed Muzaffar Khan, Todar Mal, and Shah Mansur. He kept Qanungos in each area. Qanungos were asked to provide information on the area of cultivated or uncultivated land, produce from the land, and figures or statistics (taksimat) of land revenue.
• In the land revenue system of Akbar from 1567–71, he appointed a total of 10 Qanungos. He created a new Jama-i-raqmi (basis of assessment). He canceled Sher Shah’s Ray system and kept different prices for crops in different areas of the kingdom based on crop production.
• Akbar divided agricultural lands into four categories according to their productivity by measuring land in the zabti system. These were polaj, parauti, chachar, and banjar.
  • Polaj: land where crops were grown year after year.
  • Parauti: when the land was left fallow for two years to increase soil fertility and then cultivated.
  • Chachar: when no cultivation was done on a land for three to four years.
  • Banjar: when no cultivation was done on land for more than five years, i.e., it remains fallow for a long time.
• In 1574, Akbar experimented with karoris. So that accurate information about agriculture could be known. In 1576, he gave responsibility to karoris to include all fertile land from Lahore to Allahabad under khalisa. But he couldn’t stop corruption. This plan also failed.
• During this time, “gaz-i-ilahi” was introduced instead of “gaz-i-sikandari.”. It was 41 digits, or about 33 inches, being 14 percent longer than the previous yard.
• During Akbar’s time, Kharwar (basis of ass loads) was prevalent in Kashmir. Here, half of the produced crop was fixed as revenue. In the case of Ajmer, it was 1/7 part of the total crop.
• Malikzada, in his written ‘Nigamama-i-munshi,’ and Abul Fazl have considered the ghalla bakhshi (crop sharing) system to be more important.

Land Revenue System of Later Mughal Rulers

After Akbar, no significant changes were observed in the land revenue system during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan. At that time, Jahangir had handed over the khalisa (crown) lands to the jagirdars, which resulted in a severe financial crisis in the royal treasury. This crisis intensified when Shah Jahan transferred the responsibility of revenue collection to the jaradars (revenue farmers). During Shah Jahan’s time, 1/3 of the produce was collected as revenue.

Aurangzeb issued a farman through Rasik Das Karori, which stated that in case of natural calamities, revenue would be reduced to 1/2, 1/3, or 2/5.  After Rasik Das, Aurangzeb appointed Muhammad Hasim Karori and said that no concession would be given after the crop was cut. A concession was given only if the crop was destroyed.

Aurangzeb issued a hasb-ul-hukm in 1674–75 to check this practice in Khalisa and Jagir lands, arguing that no peasant could be held responsible for arrears contracted by others. Farmers were given taqavi loans for the convenience of cultivation. Abul Fazal writes, “The Amalguzar should assist the empty-handed peasants by advancing them loans.”. Mughal rulers had abolished the ijara system; it was prevalent in some villages.

The rulers after Aurangzeb reintroduced the Ijara system. According to this system, the highest bidder is given the right to collect revenue. This system did not last long because, most of the time, the bidding was not related to the actual productivity of the land.

Also Read about: Mansabdari System: Akbar’s Strategic Reform in Mughal India

Various methods of collecting revenue during the Mughal Period

The Persian term for land revenue during the Mughal rule was mal and mal wajib. Kharaj was not in regular use. The two main methods of collecting land revenue were jama (tashkish): assessment and hasil: actual collection.

Kharif and rabi crops were assessed separately under the Mughals. After the assessment is completed, a written document called patta, qaul, or qaulqarar is issued specifying the amount or rate of revenue demand.

The assessee was in return supposed to give qabuliyat (the acceptance) of the obligation imposed upon him, specifying when and how he would make the payment.

Ghalla: Bakhshi or Batai (Crop Sharing)

During the Mughal era, often when crops were produced, the government would collect 1/3 of it as revenue. And the revenue was collected based on production.

No survey was done in this system. In some areas, this system was called ‘batai’ or ‘bhaoli’ in Hindi. Revenue was collected in three ways in this system: bhaoli, khet batai, and lang batai.

• First was the bhaoli, where the crops were harvested and stacked and divided by agreement in the presence of parties.
• The second type was khet batai, where the field is divided after sowing the seeds.
• The third type was lang batai, where the grain is piled and divided after harvest. This arrangement required a large number of intelligent inspectors; otherwise, there was fraud.

Nasaq System

The Nasaq system was first prevalent in Bangladesh. There is disagreement among modern historians about the nature of this system—Moreland called it group assessment. R.P. Tripathi disagreed but was not sure of its exact nature. Irfan Habib considers its estimation on the basis of previous assessments.

In the Nasaq system, farmers had several alternative ways to pay revenue. Basically, farmers adopted two methods for paying revenue. One, based on the zabt or batai system, revenue had to be paid according to the old assessment. And, two, if the old assessment was not preferred, a new assessment was made. In this way, annual measurements or appraisement could be avoided.

Since the Nasaq system was built on the basis of the Zabt system, gradually the Nasaq system remained prevalent in place of the Zabt.

Also Read about: Blood and Iron Policy of Balban: Balban’s Path to Power

Kankut System or Danabandi System

The amended form of the Nasaq system is the Kankut system. In this system, first the land was measured by dropping a rope or foot, and the standing crops were inspected. Then, looking at the production of a specific area, the revenue rate was determined.

If there was any doubt, the crops were cut and estimated in three lots: the good, the middling, and the inferior. Abul Fazil says, “Often, too, the land taken by appraisement gives a sufficiently accurate return.”.

The word Kankut is derived from two words, Kan and Kut. Kan means grain, and kut means to estimate. Similarly, dana means grain, and bandi is fixing or determining something.

Zabti System or Dahsala System

Zabti system, or Dahsala system, was the most important system of the Mughal Empire. Zabti system was introduced by Akbar in 1579–80. He made many changes to this system and then implemented it in his empire.

1/3 of the average production over 10 years was taken as revenue. According to the Zabti system, there were four types of land: polaj, parauti, chachar, and banjar. This system was prevalent in areas like Gujarat, Bihar, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, etc.

The Zabt system was not applied to crash crops.

According to this system, land was directly settled with the farmer.

However, the same revenue policy was not adopted throughout the Mughal period. Where the Zabt system existed, 1/3 part was taken as revenue. In areas where Nasaq, Kankut, and Bhaoli methods were prevalent, exact information on how much revenue was taken is not available. Where revenue was collected in cash, more than 1/3 was taken. In the case of Kashmir and Ajmer, 1/2 revenue was fixed. In Thatta 1/3 part, in the desert region 1/7, in central India 1/2 or 2/5, in the Deccan 1/2 was taken from ordinary land, 1/3 was taken from those irrigated by wells, and 1/4 was taken from high-grade crops.

Conclusion

Ultimately, it can be said that the land revenue system of the Mughal era had brought the Mughal rulers to the brink of economic crisis at that time. The Jagirdari crisis, conflict among Mughal nobles, the Mansabdari crisis, the wide disparity between Jama and Hasil—all these crises were created around the land revenue systems. According to famous historian Satish Chandra, “The Mughal land revenue system resulted in an extreme Jagirdari crisis.”.

Despite many flaws, it can be said that through this system, farmers were greatly encouraged in the field of agriculture. As much as possible, attempts were made to collect fair and reasonable revenue from the farmers. Since revenue was collected directly from farmers through land surveys, there was no role for intermediaries; as a result, farmers were less exploited. Even farmers could not be evicted from the land due to having patta and quabuliyat. From all aspects, it can be said that the benefits and drawbacks of the Mughal revenue system were equally noticeable.

Land Revenue System of Akbar FAQ’s